Open Government Data: The OECD's Swiss army knife in the transformation of government

Open Government Data (OGD) has been framed as a collection of tools enabling the achievement diverse goals: to increase transparency and thus improve democracy, boost economic development, enhance efficiency public services. To investigate evolution OGD, this study focuses on work Organization for Economic Cooperation Development (OECD). identify underlying values multiple purposes we propose Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) study, which aims show how OGD forged expectations towards it have evolved. This paper contribute existing literature, offering critical perspective OECD's well developing more nuanced understanding OGD's conceptual features. Finally, reveals emergence data-driven government model, paving way further research its effects Public Administration Law. Les données publiques ouvertes («Open Data» ou «OGD») ont été présentées comme un ensemble d'outils permettant d'atteindre divers objectifs : accroître la transparence et donc améliorer démocratie, stimuler le développement économique renforcer l'efficacité des services publics. Pour étudier l'évolution du discours sur les ouvertes, cette étude se concentre travaux de l'Organisation coopération économiques (OCDE). identifier valeurs sous-jacentes multiples nous proposons une d'analyse critique discours, qui vise à montrer comment forgées attentes leur égard évolué. Cet article contribuer littérature existante, en offrant travail l'OCDE thème ainsi qu'en développant compréhension plus nuancée caractéristiques conceptuelles idée ouvertes. Enfin, l'étude révèle l'émergence d'un modèle gestion gouvernementale axée données, ouvrant voie d'autres recherches ses effets l'administration publique droit public. refers free release public-founded data in machine-readable format. Further, published should not be submitted any privacy, proprietary, or licensing restrictions (Janssen al., 2012). Many countries around world incorporated into their information innovation policies (Ruijer & Meijer, 2020), largely due strong support received from international organizations (Gonzalez-Zapata Heeks, 2015). Despite popularity idea, reasons governments adopt are ambiguous significantly evolved since first appearance (Attard 2016). Different disciplines potential success problems most efficient manner implementation (Charalabidis 2016; Matheus Janssen, 2019). An important part recent literature addressed ability respond high (Ingrams, 2017; Jetzek, Magalhaes Roseira, 2020; Zuiderwijk Overall, analysis both scholarship level ambiguity lack consensus regarding very concept utility (Zuiderwijk Hinnant, In administration, several models integrating Information Technology (IT) structures proposed 2019; Janowski, 2015): e-Government Digital Government, passing over idea platform. systematically ascribed with crucial role development such models. paper, argue that set performing tasks. From perspective, takes shape kind “Swiss Army Knife”: always useful, but without single clearly defined purpose. After reviewing find attributed renewed purpose enabler government. Such an emergent model expresses particular view world, and, context, is understand assumptions. incremental change purpose, sustain evolution, focus Indeed, consider organization particularly relevant given efforts promote national world. Concerning broad institutional agenda, suite topics related “digital economy” “good governance agendas.” CDA appropriate fit, applied various questions directly closely our topic, including: civil society movement (Bates, 2013), citizenship through (Schou Hjelholt, 2017), neoliberal ideology 2014), why adhering (Blasio Selva, seeks The structure follows: sketch different understandings limits (II). We then present methodological approach (III), before engaging material (IV). distinguish three phases OECD work: first, where echoed social openness; second, was emphasized; finally, promotes conditions private actors provide IT solutions deliver tasks, helping build policy-making. draw conclusions indicate future avenues (V). Since 2009, analyzed across variety disciplines. shows functions purposes. More recently, certain authors new relation Big phenomena (Dwivedi Janssen Kuk, general, 2009 Robinson al. (2009) named “Government Invisible Hand” treated starting point OGD. does use expression explores citizens needed. authors' view, let “vibrant marketplace engineering ideas” explore governmental information; they better equipped use, explore, create value data. also considers year Barack Obama's presidency milestone (Wirtz 2018). past decade, Management provided major contributions field, describing empirical features 2015; Martin, 2014; legal scholarship, interested relationship between Freedom (Noveck, principle good administration (Gilles Bouhadana, privacy personal protection (Borgesius Political science, political theory, studies offered insight concerning ideological links strengthening democracy (Birchall, Lourenço Ruijer 2017). If early mostly optimistic, increasingly adopted moderate realistic revealing growing uncertainty outcomes (Jamieson Omar Worthy, terms conceptualization, all aforementioned works described ways, hinting at concept. (Chen 2018; Wang Shepherd, initiative 2019), policy (Chatfield Reddick, 2015), strategy (Cahlikova Mabillard, Kubler It manifestation, “concurrent implementation,” “organizational invention,” meanings practices still evolving uses develop findings. hesitation scholars when addressing trend embraces AI appears give hope project, especially Linked (BOLD); some, can play (Hardy Maurushat, Combining linking isolated datasets (public generated) would enable discovery hitherto unreachable insights benefit sectors (Lnenicka Komarkova, Studying process, Poel (2018) initiatives using approaches rely some However, same deeper required unlock full analytics policy-making process. With cautionary tone, Rieder Simon (2016) reliance supposed mechanical objectivity reinforces mainstream tendency core add participates datafication (Rieder Simon, For Meijer Thaens (2020), positive sector investigation innovation's perverse supports tendency. these developments, verify seen reflected by work. Considering promoting digital economy methodology assumptions change. useful policies, change, views choices (John, 2012; Yanow, Keeping mind discourse's constitutive function (Howarth Griggs, possible observe discursive come concepts categorize reality. discourse only describes creates reality (David Steven, post-structural contingent cultural creation. So understood, discourses need interpreted unfolded fully understood. Bacchi's problematization framing problem ahead, frame scope available (Bacchi, enables reflection act those actions. Bacchi Goodwin write, “By asking ‘problems’ represented constituted becomes probe render representations intelligible implications follow lives imagined lived” (Bacchi Goodwin, 2016, p. 176). goal in-depth “mutability” here guiding administrations (both State members third parties countries). Additionally, analyzing organizational out importance building shared definition solutions, based framework (Woodward, 2009). institution relies heavily reports, guidelines, working papers, used leverage push agenda A common scenario announces policymakers member states partner providing forum dialogue creating standards principles. offers reviews, practical recommendations, comparative data, reform. gathered officials, experts sector, organizations, trade unions. suitable analysis. proceed analysis, pre-selected 57 documents, were retrieved online library. scan, documents selected subjected final focused 22 read coded NVivo software's assistance. coding processes captured changes conceptualized address time. reached roots looking preceded expression, nevertheless contained essential context emerged. frequent subject OECD. Formally, organ charge inside “Public Governance Directorate.” mention 2013, titled “Open Data: Towards Empirical Initiatives” (Ubaldi, 2013). Following this, least 20 explicitly mentioned frequently cited scientific studying Borgesius Donker Loenen, Gonzalez-Zapata Lassinantti entry ticket discussion, however, ideas embodied already formalized. Therefore, detailed look produced 2013 will allow us premises upon built. following therefore organized phases: pre-2013, consolidation, ahead. timeline below (Figure 1) illustrates phases. recognize regardless occurred vacuum. implicitly Partnership,1 United Nations (notably via Agenda Sustainable Development), World Forum. combined institutions direct impact own publications, mentions lend gravity issue hand, stressing urgency. Besides publications practices; sense, one modes action disseminate best compare performance countries. By doing so, influenced level. infer dynamic there exists cross-fertilization phenomenon: helps while being practices. Notwithstanding, specific contours difficult (and cases impossible) measure. One roles liberal within informed citizen central. regard, 2001 express IT, emphasize governments' embrace technologies, central 2001, Handbook Consultation Participation Policy-Making (OECD, 2001), emphasizes means information. document's argument because provides participate debate democratic easily accessible reinforce trust governments. noted document “public data,” information.” 2003, two Fostering Dialogue Civil Society” 2003b). reinforcement trust, reinforced technology primary mediator society. second 2003 dedicated e-Government: “The Imperative” 2003a). Here again, launches take “information revolution.” encourages profound transformation administrative culture mentioning among other things question releasing datasets. notes implementing area deemed deeply desirable. approach, boundaries become blurred “as result greater private-sector firms intermediaries, driven imperatives e-government.” (p. 154) governance, considerations began shape; including fact provider, providers innovation, what them together adapt open actors, suited solutions. 2008, Recommendation2 availability Sector (PSI). Recommendation stated necessary PSI's availability, did principles admits, example, PSI could conditioned fees. launched series: Glance” biannual report gathers qualitative quantitative indicators governments, “a snapshot quality governance,” measuring designed achieve “stronger, cleaner fairer economies societies” (pp. 7–8). edition, covers entire decade 2000s. mutation service marked period, inclusion 40). attests 85% had reviewed 2000 Furthermore, underlines evidence-based adoption warns current evidence gathering policymaking entail distortions inequalities. partnership counterbalancing power lobbyists. Asserting government's responsibility neutral trustworthy guide decision-making 39), leading source policy. remain covering Two years later, series 2011) insisted “Proactive disclosure information” 142). referred “information,” introduced data” reuse. reuse viewed opportunity “to added-value” asserts making “electronic information,” “in formats manipulation” general goals, main made freely format allows reuse) transparency. no surprise includes chapter officially action: “Governance Glance.” These direction guidance; transparency, paradigmatic previous came competition aimed conceptualize indicates advocated for-profit-actors days,3 relates similar concepts, Right Information, PSI, movement. stresses aim government, concerned information, whereas 5). considered “lowest abstraction knowledge derived” therefore, derived regime regulating impacts presents “building block” 6). mentioned, emphasizing increased awareness processes. Moreover, valorization signals shift socioeconomic model” 7). words, that, besides aiming accountability, goals broadly efficiency, flexibility details contributes achievement. Understanding enablers type prioritise targeted creation goals. require types instance, many accountability objectives served aggregated boosting growth may released business community apps developers granular timely updated regularly diffuse vastly rapidly opportunities. 12). replicates academic (Robinson 2009), extract data: “rather than deciding option up front, stimulate party interest engineer experiments discover situations.” 17). illuminates vision careful reading brings light First, techno-determinism techno-solutionism, assertion something inexorable assuming specifically vast realm Second, clear foundations thought; assertation market sector. New detected efficiency. Glance,” Working Paper emerging established ongoing project constant evolution. reports half citizens” 10). linked “the basis meaningful participation collaboration innovative, responsive value-added ultimately expected process individuals.” 140) icing cake: “OGD growth, forms entrepreneurship innovation.” 140). raises remains measure assess. consolidation phase demonstrates formation, resulted achieving natures: development. 2014 2019, took direction. promoted less promotion “Digital Government.” policymaking, artificial intelligence (AI) administration. 2014, countries, report, Latin America” 2014a). still-evolving character forming 64). Also Council issued guidance make most” technological opportunities 2014b). on, changed discourse, replacing e-Government. Recommendations' introductory text instrument government” 4). deep reform sector's technology: “from operations strategic decisions technologies shaping overarching strategies agendas modernisation” 3). prescribes anchored openness, inclusiveness; four action, intrinsically connected “ensure openness inclusiveness,” mediated technology. While sector,” reinforcing access “managing risks misuse” 6–7). state ensure recognized “strong engagement” levels spheres 2015, 2015a). points inequality, recognizing emphasis pursuit values. exaggerated rise inequality (or, least, relief disparities). words: “In last decades, became operate delivered often putting equity fairness back burner.” 26). Access element reshaping orientation inclusive cites laws passive dissemination proactive d